ence shows the necessity or utility of a measure which the fundamental regulations of the school have not provided for, it is by no means proposed at once to the royal council for adoption as an article of the regulations; authority is asked to put it to the test of practice, and it is only when found repeatedly successful that it is deemed prudent to convert it into a regulation." A close observation of the merits and defects of the system is thus made to pave the way for judicious changes.

The full course of the school, at present, occupies three years. The pupils are divided into two sections, that of letters and of science, which pursue separate courses. In the section of letters, the first year is devoted to a revision, and the second to an extension, of the higher courses of the colleges, and the third is especially employed in fitting the pupils to become professors. In fulfilling this object, however, no instruction in the science or art of teaching is given in the establishment, nor is it obligatory upon the pupils to teach, so that, as far as systematic practice goes, they derive no direct benefit from the school; it is a privilege, however, which many enjoy, to be called to give lessons in some of the royal colleges, particularly in that with which the school is now connected by its locality. When the pupil intends to devote himself to teaching in the grammar classes of the colleges, or is found not to have the requisite ability for taking a high rank in the body of instructors, he passes at once from the first year's course to the third, and competes, accordingly, in the examination of adjuncts (agreges). The consequences of the low esteem in which the grammar studies are held have been much deplored by the present director of the school,* and a reform in regard to them has been attempted, with partial success.

The courses are conducted by teachers called masters of conferences, who seldom lecture, but question the pupils upon the lessons which have been appointed for them to learn, give explanations, and are present while they interrogate each other, as a kind of practice in the art of teaching. In some cases, the students themselves act as masters of conferences.

The course of letters of the first year comprised, in 1836–7,†

1. Greek language and literature, three lessons per week. 2. Latin and French literature, three lessons. 3. Ancient history and antiquities, three lessons. 4. A course of philosophy higher than that of the colleges, three lessons. 5. General physics, one lesson. Chemistry, one lesson, the courses being introduced chiefly to keep up the knowledge of these subjects. 6. German and English language, each one lesson.

The conferences, or lessons on general physics, chemistry, and the modern languages, are by pupils who give instruction and explanations to their comrades.

At the end of the first year there are examinations, according to the result of which the student passes to the courses of the second year, or, in the case before stated, to those of the third year, or leaves the school. These examinations are conducted by inspectors-general of the university, named for the purpose by the minister. Pupils who have passed, may present themselves at the university as candidates for the degree of licentiate of let

ters.

The second year's course of letters does not necessarily include any scientific studies.

The courses of language and philosophy go into the history of these subjects. They consist of-1. Lectures on the history of Greek literature, three lessons per week. 2. On the history of Roman literature, two lessons. 3. On the history of French literature, one lesson. 4. English language, one lesson. 5. On the history of philosophy, two lessons. 6. Continuation of the historical course, two lessons. The recitations are accompanied by suitable written exercises.

• Rapport sur les travaux de l'école normale pendant l'année, 1835-6. Par M. Cousin.

+ The distribution of subjects is taken from a manuscript kindly furnished to me by the director of studies, M. Viguier; it does not agree precisely with the plan marked out in the regulations.

At the end of the year the pupils are examined. Those who have not already obtained the degree of licentiate of letters are now required to do so, or to leave the school.

The examinations for this degree consist of compositions in French and Latin prose, on different days. Latin verses and Greek themes. Explanations of selected passages from the second book of Herodotus, the speech of Pericles in Thucydides, the Gorgias of Plato, the speech of Demosthenes against Leptines, the choruses of (Edipus at Colonos, the Hecuba of Euripides, the combat of Hercules and Amycus in Theocritus, the Hymns of Synesius, Cicero de Oratore and de legibus, the Germany of Tacitus, the Treatise of Seneca de beneficiis, the last two books of Quintilian's Rhetoric, the fifth book of Lucretius de natura rerum, the first book of Horace's Epistles, the second book of Horace's Odes, the Troas of Seneca.

These books are liable to be changed, from time to time, on notice being given. The candidate is expected to answer the questions on philosophy, literature, history, and philology, to which the reading of the author may give rise.

In the third year of letters, the courses are special, the divisions corresponding with the courses of the royal colleges, and consisting of grammar, humanities, and rhetoric, history, and philosophy. Each pupil takes his place in one or other of these divisions, and is not required to follow the courses of the others.

The lectures and recitations constituting the entire course of letters of the third year were, during the second half year of 1886-7-1. Latin language and grammar, three lessons. 2. Greek language, two lectures and one lesson. 8. Latin literature, two lectures and one lesson. 4. Greek literature, two lectures and one lesson. 5. Latin eloquence, two lectures. 6. Latin poetry, two lectures. 7. French literature, one lesson. 8. History of the philosophy of the ancients, two lectures. 9. Ancient geography, two lectures. 10. Philosophy, one lesson. The lectures alluded to are those attended by the pupils at the Sorbonne.

The following were the courses of the different years in the section of science during the same term, the lectures being those of the faculty of sciences of the university.

First year. 1. Astronomy, two lessons per week. 2. Descriptive Geometry, two lessons. 3. Chemistry, two lectures, one lesson, and four hours of manipulation. 4. Botany, one lesson. 5. Philosophy, two lessons. 6. German language, one lesson. 7. Drawing, one lesson, during the week, and one on Sunday.

Second year. 1. Physics, two lectures, two lessons, and one hour of manipulation. 2. Chemistry, two lectures. 3. Botany, one lesson. 4. Vegetable physiology, two lectures. 5. Calculus of probabilities, two lectures. 6. Differential and integral calculus, two lectures and two lessons. 7. Drawing, one lesson during the week, and one on Sunday.

Third year. 1. Mechanics, four lectures and two lessons. 2. Chemical analysis, two lectures and one hour of manipulation. 3. Chemistry, one lecture. 4. Natural history, two lessons. 5. Geology, one lesson. 6. Botany, one lesson. 7. Drawing, one lesson. On Sunday, the pupils make botanical and geological excursions into the environs.

The pupils undergo similar examinations to those of the section of letters, and before presenting themselves as candidates for the place of adjunct, they must have taken at least the degree of licentiate of sciences. They are however, specially relieved from the necessity of matriculating in those courses at the university which they attend in the school, and which otherwise would be necessary in order to obtain the degree of licentiate. These are, for the mathematical sciences, the differential and integral calculus and mechanics; for the physical sciences, physics and chemistry; and for the natural sciences, geology, botany, &c. The examination for the degree of licentiate of mathematical science may be made at the end of the second year, by pupils of this section of the normal school, and that for licentiate of physical science at the close of the third year.

The programmes of the several lessons* in both sections are prepared by the masters, and submitted to the council of public instruction every year before the beginning of the course.

Besides these lectures and recitations, the pupils are required to attend such other lectures at the faculty of letters or of sciences of the university, or any other public institution, as may be designated to them. At the termination of the third year's course, in the month of July, they are examined in the school, and present themselves as competitors for the places of adjuncts, according to the special studies which they have pursued.

The courses of the school are arranged in reference to the competition for these places, an account of the examinations for which has already been given in the general description of secondary instruction in France. In this competition they are brought in contact with the best talent which has chosen a different road to preferment from that offered by the normal school. Suecess in this trial is, of course, not always a fair criterion of the state of the school, but certainly offers, on the average, an idea of the merits of its different departments, and is so used in directing their improvement. It may be of interest, therefore, to give the results of one of these competitions, namely, that for 1836. The judges of the competition for the places of adjuncts in philosophy report ten candidates for the six places; of these, five of the successful ones were from the normal school, but the first was from another institution. For six vacancies in the higher classes of letters there were thirty candidates examined, and of these, two of the successful ones, including the first upon the list, were pupils of the school. For adjuncts in the sciences there were eight places and nineteen candidates, the school furnishing six of the successful competitors, and among them the first on the list. In history and geography there were eight candidates for five places; the institutions from which they came are, however, not stated. In grammar, there were forty-one candidates for eight places; of the successful competitors the school sent five, and among them the first on the list.

The keen nature of this competition, while it excites the pupils of the school to great exertion, produces a most deleterious effect upon the health of the more feeble. Indeed, their general appearance, when compared with those of other young men of the same age, is far from favorable. It is part of a system which is considered adapted to the national character, but which is certainly by no means a necessity for men in general, since the teachers of the German gymnasia are prepared without its severe pressure.

2d.

The collections subsidiary to the instruction are-1st. A library of works relating to education and to the courses of study, which is open for two hours every day, and from which the students may receive books. This library is under the charge of the sub-director of studies. The students are, besides, furnished with the books which they use in their classes at the expense of the school, and which, unless injured, are returned by them after use. A small collection of physical apparatus. 3d. A collection of chemical apparatus connected with a laboratory, for practice in manipulation. The courses of manipulation are not, however, carried out to their due extent, and the study-rooms are common to many individuals. The pupils are divided into two sections for study, each of which is in charge of one of the superintending masters.

Discipline. Though there are minute regulations for discipline, the age of the pupils and the character of their pursuits and expectations render the exercise of severity but little necessary. At the time of my visit to the school, in 1837, the youngest pupil was seventeen years of age, and there were but four of between eighteen and nineteen connected with it.

Much difference of opinion exists as to whether the frequent permissions to individuals to leave the premises should not be replaced by excursions made by the whole of the pupils, under the supervision of an officer. At • A series of programmes is given in full in M. Cousin's work, before referred to.

present, Sunday is a day of general leave of absence, and on Thursday afternoon individual permissions are freely granted by the director of studies.

This institution occupies the same rank with those attached to some of the Prussian universities, and intended to prepare masters for the gymnasia. It has an advantage over them in the spirit produced by the greater numbers of its pupils, and by the closer connection with the school, which results from their studying and residing within its walls. It is, in turn, inferior to the seminaries for secondary teachers at Berlin, in the absence of arrangements for practical teaching, and in even a more important respect, namely, the want of that religious motive of action which forms the characteristic of the Prussian system. The deficiencies of this great school, in regard to both religious and practical education, struck me, I must confess, very forcibly.*

* In the general tenor of the foregoing remarks, I have the sanction of M. Cousin, in the preface to his account of the Normal School, already referred to.

POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL

OF

FRANCE.

THE Polytechnic School of France was established by a decree of the National Convention, dated March 11, 1794, through the influence of Monge, Carnot, Fourcroy, and others, under the name of the Central School of Public Works-which name was changed to its present designation in 1795. To prepare a suitable choir of teachers, a certain number of pupils of the right character were trained under such professors as Lagrange, Laplace, Hassenfratz, and Berthollet.

The original object of the school, a diffusion of mathematical, physical, and chemical science, and the graphic arts, has been constantly maintained under the successive changes in the government of France; and although the pupils are not obliged to enter any branch of the government service; in point of fact, most of the graduates become engineers, military, naval or civil, or are promoted to the direction of public works. Since 1800, the school has furnished, on an average, one hundred thoroughly educated graduates for the public service, annually.

The general charge of the institution belongs to the war department, and the immediate control is vested in a military commandant, assisted by a vice-commandant, both of whom must have been pupils of the school with an able choir of subordinate officers, professors, and tutors. The following account of the school is abridged from President Bache's Report:

The school is open to all candidates over sixteen years of age, from any part of France, who give satisfactory evidence of talents and acquirements.

Each applicant registers his name at the prefecture of the department in which he resides, and is examined for admission in the district to which he belongs, or where he is under instruction. With this registry is deposited the certificate of the date and circumstances of birth, a certificate of vaccination or of having had the small-pox, and of general health, and an obligation on the part of the parent or guardian to pay the sum of one thousand francs (about two hundred dollars) yearly to the school, in case of admission.

The subjects upon which a candidate is examined are-1. Arithmetic, in all its branches. 2. Elementary geometry. 3. Algebra. 4. Plane trigonometry. 5. Statics treated synthetically. 6. Elements of analytical geometry. 7. The use of the logarithmic tables. 8. Latin, as far as it is taught in the rhetoric class of the colleges, and French composition. 9. Drawing, with the crayon and with instruments. If the candidate possesses, in addition, a knowledge of physics, chemistry, German, and of India-ink drawing, they are taken into the account.

There are four examiners appointed annually by the minister of war, on the nomination of the council of instruction of the school. These divide between them the different districts in which the examinations are to be held, and repair, at a stated time, between the first of August and tenth of October, to the place appointed. The performance of the candidates is registered according to a scale of marks, as nearly uniform as the judgment of different individuals allows; these registers being compared, the candidates are admitted in the order of merit, thus