dore (Hamilton), they determined to throw themselves on the protection of England. But before the Greck deputy arrived in London, the British government (Sept. 30, 1825) issued a decided declaration of neutrality. The whole state of European politics forbade any single power from promising direct intervention. Yet the English government permitted their consul at Alexandria to forbid British ships to carry ammunition from Egypt to Greece for the assistance of the pachas. England even seemed to recognise the right of search on the part of the Greeks. The English declaration of neutrality appeased the divan, and the new English ambassador (Stratford Canning) set out, at last, upon a journey to Constantinople; but he stopped a long time on the way, and had an interview (January, 1826) with Mavrocordato, and other Greek statesmen, at Hydra, in order to inform himself of the general state of affairs. He then went to Smyrna, and sailed from that place through the Dardanelles (January 15), and arrived at Constantinople in the last of February. About this time (March, 1826), the duke of Wellington, as envoy extraordinary at St. Petersburg, and lord Strangford, then resident minister there (who had formerly been minister to Constantinople), discussed the affairs of Greece with the Russian cabinet; for, at the end of the year 1825, the idea of restoring independence to the Greek states seemed to be gaining strength in the principal European cabinets. The unsuccessful issue of the Turkish-Egyptian campaign, begun under such favorable auspices, contributed much to this. The capudan pacha had received the command of the Egyptian fleet at the end of August, in Alexandria, where the brave Kanaris (August 10) had, with three fire-ships, in vain forced his way into the harbor, with the intention of burning the Egyptian fleet; the pacha had also landed fresh troops at Navarino (August 5); he had afterwards directed his efforts against Missolonghi, in order to invest this place on the sea side. Reschid Pacha thus began, in connexion with Ibrahim, a winter campaign. Yet this did not effect any thing decisive. The affairs of Greece appeared to be hastening to ruin. The Greek fleet (73 men-of-war and 23 fire-ships) arrived too late before Navarino. The government had hardly 6000 men under arms. The capitani squandered the money with which they were to provide troops. General Roche, manager of the French committee for the assistance of the Greeks, worked

openly and secretly against the measures of the English party, which had the upper hand in the government. The members of the senate and of the executive council had no confidence in each other. The secretary of state, Mavrocordato, who labored, with little aid but that of his own foresight and prudence, to maintain order, was, for this reason, held in ill will by all parties, and had little influence. The islanders presented the last bulwark for the defence of the Morea, but were obliged also to provide for their own security. Notwithstanding this, their fleet succeeded in entering Missolonghi (November 24), now besieged for the fourth time, and in providing it with ammunition and provisions, after the garrison had again repulsed an attack made by sea and land. At the same time, Gouras had advanced from Livadia to Salona, and had expelled the Turks from this important point (November 7), after which he attacked Reschid Pacha's besieging army in the rear. A body of troops, also, sent by Ibrahim Pacha against Corinth, was wholly destroyed by Niketas. Hereupon the provisional government, in December, 1825, called for a voluntary contribution for the equipment of a new naval force at Hydra, in order to save Missolonghi. Strengthened by the accession of these vessels, Miaulis appeared, in January, 1826, in the waters of Missolonghi, and successfully encountered the capudan pacha on the 8th of this month. In the mean time, Reschid and Ibrahim Pacha were making arrangements for a new siege. Ibrahim, as governor of the Morea, had taken possession of Patras with this view, after the brave Jussuf Pacha had been appointed governor of Aidin (Magnesia) in Natolia. The capudan pacha appeared anew before Missolonghi. The attempts of the Grecian fleet to supply it again with provisions and ammunition failed; the capulan pacha (January 27) summoned the authorities of the town to surrender, if they did not wish the place to be taken by storin. They refused the offer. Soon after, there was an engagement between the fleets, in the gulf of Patras, on the 27th and 28th of January, when the Greek fire-ships, under Kanaris, destroyed a frigate and many small vessels. The capudan pacha soon gave up his command, after a disagreement with Ibrahim Pacha (who had desired his recall by the divan), and went by land from Yanina to Constantinople. In consequence of that battle, the Greeks succeeded in furnishing Missolonghi with provisions and ammunition,

sufficient for a few weeks. A later attempt (February 12) was frustrated by the Turkish-Egyptian fleet. Commissioners were sent, at the end of the year 1825, from the divan to Greece. Hussni Bey and Nedschib Effendi (the agent of the viceroy of Egypt) entered the camp at Missolonghi, to await the fall of this place, and to take their measures according to circumstances. Soon after, Reschid Pacha left Acarnania, and went to Livadia, in order to occupy Gouras and colonel Fabvier, who had trained a body of 1000 Greeks in the European discipline. Ibrahim then conducted the siege alone. He had 25,000 men, among them about 9000 regular troops, and 48 cannon, bought in France, with which Pierre Boyer (a former Bonapartist, and a general well known by his cruelties committed in Egypt, St. Domingo and Spain) bombarded Missolonghi, from February 24. After the bombardment had continued several days, Ibrahim repeatedly offered the commander of the fortress large sums if he would surrender the place. He was willing even to permit the garrison to take the cannon and all the movable property with them. His proposals were rejected, and the garrison prepared themselves for death or victory, Ibrahim assaulted the works of Missolonghi from February 28 to March 2. On this day, he attacked the place by sea and land, but was wholly repulsed, with the loss of 4000 men; so that Missolonghi was, for the fifth time, freed by Greek valor, when it had but a few days' provision. Ibrahim now directed his attacks against the outworks of Missolonghi on the sea side. He forced his way, with gun-boats and floating-batteries, into the lagoons. March 9, 1826, he stormed the little island of Wassiladi, important as a fishing place, where 110 men met the death of heroes. A bomb, which fell into the powder-room of the fort, and kindled the ammunition, decided the fate of this place. Then Ibrahim took, by capitulation (March 13, 1826), the fortified island of Anatolico, near Missolonghi, after he had stormed a fortified monastery, called Kundro, which protected the island, where a garrison of 400 men were cut to pieces. After these misfortunes, Missolonghi, the bulwark of the Peloponnesus, fell gloriously, April 22,1826. The foundation of an Egyptian-African military state now seemed to be laid in Europe. Ibrahim had removed the capudan pacha, Jussuf Pacha and Reschid Pacha. He was in possession of Modon, Coron, Navarino and Patras. If he should succeed in gaining Napoli di Romania, he would be

master of the islands of the Archipelago. The Porte would then be wholly unable to keep its mighty satrap in subjection; and the viceroy of Egypt owed all this to French artillery officers. This danger roused the attention of the governments and people of Europe. The fate of Missolonghi, of whose garrison 1800 men, under Noto Botzaris and Kitzos Isuvellas, cut their way to Salona and Athens, while the rest buried themselves voluntarily under the ruins of the place, excited every where the liveliest interest. In France, this interest was loudly and actively expressed. The Philanthropic Society to aid the Cause of the Greeks, comprised among its members Chateaubriand, Choiseul, Dalberg, Matth. Dumas, Fitz-James, Lafitte, Laine, Alex. de Lanieth, Larochefoucault-Liancourt, Cas. Perrier, Sebastiani, Ternaux, Villemain, and many others. They had contributed, in February, 60,000 francs, to furnish supplies to Missolonghi. They obtained at Amsterdam, for the same object, 30,000 francs. The German Eynard contributed 12,000. The duke of Orleans subscribed, several times, considerable sums. 40 ladies of high rank made contributions individually, and it was soon the custom, in all the drawing-rooms in Paris, for the lady of the house to make a collection for the Greeks. Then followed Germany. King Louis of Bavaria signed the Greek subscription, and permitted his soldiers, with colonel Heidegger at their head, to fight for the cause of Greece. Poetry, too, lent her aid. New societies for assisting the Greeks were formed; for example, in Saxony. All cooperated with the noble Eynard. The Greek orphans were educated in Germany, Switzerland and France. Thus, at last, when the voice of lamentation was loudest in the land, deliverance was slowly approaching the Greeks.

Wellington had, by Canning's order, subscribed at Petersburg (April 4, 1826) the protocol which provided for the interference of the three great powers in favor of the Greeks. The emperor of Russia (q. v.) wished first to arrange his own difficulties with the Porte. This was done by the treaty of Ackerman (Oct. 6, 1826), and England concluded with him and France, at London (July 6, 1827), the treaty for the pacification of Greece. Canning wished to decide the question between Greece and Turkey without involving Russia in a quarrel with the Porte, and thereby endangering the peace of Europe. death frustrated, in part, his noble design. In the mean time, the Egyptian army

His

overrar almost all parts of the Morea, and changed it to a desert, without obtaining submission from a single village. Families from all parts of Greece pressed forward together under the walls of Napoli di Romania, and suffered all the horrors of poverty and hunger, rather than enter into a treaty with their Mussulman oppressors. Despair drove many of these unhappy people to piracy; but most of the corsairs, in the Greek seas, were composed of criminals and persons banished from the Ionian Islands, Dalmatia and Italy, who did not even spare the Greek flag. New bands of warriors came forth from the mountains, and Colocotroni several times attacked Tripolizza, which was defended by 3000 Egyptians, under Soliman Bey (La Séve, the French renegade). The influence of the climate and disease had weakened the Egyptian army, yet Tripolizza could not be taken. In the mean time, an assembly of the people, convoked at Megara, in January, 1826, proposed several measures for the improvement of the internal administration, particularly in regard to the administration of justice and the public revenue. At the same time, an expedition was fitted out for Negropont, and support was rendered to the insurrection of the Greeks, which had again broken out in Candia (1825), where Carabusa was taken by them. Want of money and provisions, and the dissensions between the commanders; the mistrust of the palikaris, who had been deceived by their officers; and the ingratitude of the Greeks towards the Philhellenes, or foreign officers in their service, were the causes that nothing important was accomplished. Owing to these circumstances, Athens, after the army which should have relieved it had fled in a dastardly manner, capitulated to Reschid Pacha (June 7, 1827). In vain did lord Cochrane (who had long been detained in England by the defective construction of the steam vessels, for which the Greeks had paid so dear) at last arrive in Greece, and take the chief command of the sea forces, while general Church stood at the head of the land forces. The Turks remained in possession of the whole of Eastern and Western Hellas. The distress was increased by a violent struggle of parties in Napoli di Romania itself. Here Grivas, being in possession of the fortress called Palamedes, began to cannonade the city, in order to compel the payment of arrears. The national government fled to the island of Ægina. They now cast their eyes to Russia. They chose count Capo d'Istria

(q. v.) as their president. This statesman received his discharge from the Russian service July 13, 1827, but could not enter upon his high office until Jan. 22, 1828. Meanwhile the ambassadors of the three powers had, on the 16th of August, presented to the Porte the treaty concluded at London, for the pacification of Greece, and waited for an answer till the 31st. "Greece" they said, "shall govern itself, but pay tribute to the Porte." Europe had now more reason than ever to demand from the Porte the independence of Greece, by which piracy in the Grecian and Turkish seas might be prevented; an African slave-holding and piratical state should not be allowed to rule the beautiful Archipelago of Europe; and order might take the place of bloody anarchy, which the Porte had neither sagacity nor strength to suppress. The Greek government immediately proclaimed (August 25) an armistice in conformity to the treaty of London. But the reis effendi rejected the intervention of the three powers (August 31). The Greeks then commenced hostilities anew, and the Turkish-Egyptian fleet (Sept. 9) entered the bay of Navarino. A British squadron appeared in the bay on the 13th, under admiral Codrington. To this a French squadron, under admiral Rigny, and a Russian, under count Heyden, united themselves on the 22d. They demanded from Ibrahim Pacha a cessation of hostilities. He promised this, and went out with part of his fleet, but was forced to return into the bay. As he now continued the devastations in the Morea, and gave no answer to the complaints of the admirals, the three squadrons entered the bay, where the Turkish-Egyptian fleet was drawn up in order of battle. The first shots were fired from the Turkish side, and killed two Englishmen. This was the sign for a deadly contest (Oct. 20, 1827), in which Codrington nearly destroyed the Turkish-Egyptian armada of 110 ships. One part was burned, another driven on shore, and the rest disabled. None struck their flag. The news of the victory was received with exultation in Europe. An involuntary suspension of hostilities now ensued, during which the depredations of pirates became more serious. The admirals of the three united squadrons, therefore, sent a warm remonstrance to the legislative council of the Greeks, and, after a number of capital punishments, the safety of the seas was restored, particularly after the British had destroyed the head-quarters of the corsairs

(Karabusa, in Candia, Feb. 28, 1828). The Greeks now resumed the offensive against the Turks; but their attempt upon Scio (where they vainly besieged the citadel, from November, 1827, till March 13, 1828) was productive of nothing but injury to the inhabitants. Enraged at the battle of Navarino, the Porte seized all the ships of the Franks in Constantinople, detained them from Nov. 2 to Nov. 19, and, on the 8th, stopped all communication with the ministers of the allied powers, till indemnification should be made for the destruction of the fleet. At the same time, it prepared for war. Since the abolition of the janizaries (q. v.), in June, 1826, the sultan had exerted himself, with great zeal, to establish a new army, trained in the European discipline. He conducted their exercises in person, and used all the means in his power to inflame the passions of the Moslems. For this reason, the Russian ambassador, Ribeaupierre, left Constantinople on the 4th of December, 1827; the French, Guilleminot, and the British, Stratford Canning, on the 8th. Upon this the Porte adopted conciliatory measures, and sent a note, on the 15th, to count Ribeaupierre, who was detained in the Bosphorus by contrary winds; but the hatti-sheriff addressed to the pachas (Dec. 20), demanding war, and heaping many reproaches on Russia, forbade the idea that the intentions of the Porte were friendly. From all parts of the kingdom, the Ayans were now called to Constantinople (a measure quite unusual), and discussed with the Porte the preparations for war. All the Moslems, from the age of 19 to 50, were called to arm. On the 30th, Mahmoud, on hearing that Persian Armenia had fallen into the power of Russia, misled by the artful representations of one part of this intolerant and disunited people, caused all the Catholic Armenians to be driven from Galata and Pera, so that within 14 days (January, 1828) 16,000 persons were obliged to emigrate to Asia in the most deplorable condition. In the mean time, the president of the Greeks, count Capo d'Istria, appointed the able Tricoupi his secretary of state, and established a high national council, called Panhellenion, at Napoli di Romania; Feb. 4, 1828, took measures for instituting a national bank; and, Feb. 14, put the military department on a new footing. The inprovements, however, could go on but slowly. Without the assistance of France and Russia, each of which lent the young state 6,000,000 francs (as is represented in the Courier of Smyrna, or, as others 4

VOL. VI

state, paid a monthly subsidy of 500,000 francs), nothing could have been effected. The attempts at pacification were fruitless, because the Porte rejected every proposal, and England appeared to disapprove, the battle of Navarino. Codrington was recalled, and Malcolm took his place. In this state of uncertainty, Ibrahim was allowed to send a number of Greek captives as slaves to Egypt. In March, 1828, the war between Russia and Turkey broke out, and gave the Porte full occupation. In the mean time, the French cabinet, in concurrence with the English, to carry into execution the treaty of London, sent a body of troops to the Morea, whilst the British admiral Codrington concluded a treaty with the viceroy of Egypt, at Alexandria (August 6), the terms of which were that Ibrahim Pacha should evacuate the Morea with his troops, and set at liberty his Greek prisoners. Those Greeks who had been carried into slavery in Egypt, were to be freed or ransomed. 1200 men, however, were to be allowed to remain to garrison the fortresses in the Morea. To force Ibrahim to comply with these terms, the French general Maison arrived, on the 29th of the following August, with 154 transportships, in the Morea, in the bay of Coron, near Petalidi. After an amicable negotiation, Ibrahim left Navarino, and sailed (October 4) with about 21,000 men, whom he carried with the wreck of the fleet to Alexandria; but he left garrisons in the Messenian fortresses, amounting to 2500 men, consisting of Turks and Egyptians. Maison occupied the town of Navarino without opposition. He then attacked the Turkish fortresses in Messenia. The garrison made no resistance, and, on the other hand, the commanders would not capitulate. The French, therefore, almost without opposition, took possession of the citadels of Navarino (October 6), of Modon (on the 7th), and of Coron (on the 9th). The garrisons were allowed free egres. Patras, with 3000 men, capitulated (October 5) also, without resistance; and the flags of the three powers, parties to the treaty of London, waved with the national flag of Greece, on the walls of the cities. Only the garrison of the castle of the Morea, on the Little Dardanelles, north of Patras, and opposite Lepanto, rejected the capitulation of Patras. They mur dered the pacha, and the French general Schneider was obliged to make a breach before the Turks surrendered at discretion (October 30). The Turks were all now carried to Smyrna by the French admiral

Rigny. The commanders of Coron, Modon and Patras, Achmet Bey, Mustapha and Jacobi, fled to France, to escape the anger of the sultan. The gulf of Lepanto was declared neutral; yet the fort of Lepanto, in Rumelia, was not prevented from taking the customary tolls. Nothing hostile was undertaken against the Turks by the French out of the Morea, because the sultan would, in that case, have declared war against France. England and France carefully avoided such a result, that they might be able to mediate between the Porte and Russia. To defend the Morea, however, from new invasions from the Turks, the three powers at London, by their ministers, Aberdeen, Polignac and Lieven, agreed to send a manifesto to the Porte (Nov. 16, 1828) to this effect: that "they should place the Morea and the Cyclades under their protection till the time when a definitive arrangement should decide the fate of the provinces which the allies had taken possession of, and that they should consider the entrance of any military force into this country as an attack upon themselves. They required the Porte to come to an explanation with them concerning the final pacification of Greece." The French agent, Jaubert, carried this note to Constantinople. The Greeks, in the mean time, continued hostilities. The Greek admiral Cochrane came, after an absence of eight months (September 30), on board the new Greek steam-ship Hermes, at Poros; and Demetrius Ypsilanti, having under him Colocotroni, Tsavellas, Dentzel, Bathros and others, forced his way into Hellas Proper (Livadia), at the head of 5000 men, beat the Turks at Lomotico (November 3), took Salona (December 3), then Lepanto, Livadia and Vonizza. Reschid Pacha had been recalled to Constantinople. An insurrection had broken out again in Candia, which occasioned the massacre of many Greeks in Kanca (August 14). Haji Michalis, a Moreot, who perished afterwards in battle, excited this unfortunate contest. Mustapha Pacha, who commanded the Egyptian troops at Candia, could with difficulty check the anger of the Turks against the Greek inhabitants. This massacre induced the English to close the port of Kanea. The Greeks took possession, however, of all the open country of Candia. The Russian admiral Ricord, with one ship of the line and three frigates, at Tenedos, had blockaded the Dardanelles, from the 14th of November, 1828 in order to prevent supplies of provisions and military stores from reaching

Constantinople. The Greeks now fitted out a great number of privateers. The sultan, on this account, banished from Constantinople all the Greeks and Armenians not born in the city or not settled there, amounting to more than 25,000 persons. On the 29th, he announced in all the mosques, that the Mussulmans should remain all winter under arms and in the 'field, which had never till now been the case. At the same time, he called all the men, from 17 to 60 years of age, to arms. Meantime the French were preparing to return to Toulon. A third of the troops, in January, 1829, left the Morea, where diseases and privations had destroyed many men. At this time, a scientific expedition of 17 Frenchmen, in three sections, under the direction of the royal academy, was prepared, by the French minister of the interior, to visit the Morea. The French government ransomed several hundred Greek slaves in Egypt, and the king of France undertook the education of the orplan children. Thus, after struggling for seven years, Greece was placed under the protection of the three chief European powers. Mahmoud, however, still declined to recall the edict of extermination, which he had pronounced when he commanded Dram Ali, a few years before, to bring him the ashes of the Peloponnesus. Ibrahim had wantonly burned down the olive groves as far as his Arabians spread, and the Greeks were sunk in the deepest misery and confusion. After unnumbered difficulties, the greatest obstacles to a well ordered government were in part overcome by Capo d'Istria. For this object, he divided (April 25, 1828) the Greek states into 13 departments, seven of which formed the Peloponnesus (280,000 inhabitants, 8543 square miles); the eighth, the Northern Sporades (6200 inhabitants, 106 square miles); the ninth, the Eastern Sporades (58,800 inhabitants, 318 square miles); the tenth, the Western Sporades (40,000 inhabitants, 169 square miles); the eleventh, twelfth and thirteenth, the North, Central and South Cyclades (91,500 inhabitants, 1176 square miles): the whole amount, therefore, was 476,500 inhabitants and 10,312 square miles. The first diplomatic agent to the Greek government, the British plenipotentiary, Dawkins, delivered his credentials to the president Nov. 19, 1828, and the French colonel Fabvier returned from France to the Morea, to organize the Greek army. The French envoy, Jaubert, delivered the protocol of the conference of the three great powers to the Porte in January, 1829. The ver