control over all public charities; and a jurisdiction of vast extent, as the head of the law in his Court of Chancery; where he decides without the assistance of a jury, but from which there is an appeal to the House of Lords.-Chancellor of a Diocese, a lay officer under a bishop, versed in the canon and civil law, who is judge of his court.-Chancellor of a Cathedral, an officer who hears lessons in the church, inspects schools, hears causes, writes letters, and applies the seal of the chapter, keeps the books, &c.-Chancellor of a University, an officer who seals the diplomas, or letters of degree, &c. The chancellors of Oxford and Cambridge are selected from among the prime nobility: the former holds his office for life; the latter is elected every three years.Chancellor of the Exchequer, an officer who presides in that court, and takes care of the interests of the crown. He has power with the lord treasurer to lease the crown lands, and with others to compound for forfeiture of lands, on penal statutes: he has also great authority in managing the royal revenues, and in all matters relating to the finances of the state. CHANCE-MEDLEY, in law, the accidental killing of a person, not altogether without the killer's fault, though without any evil intention. CHAN'CERY, the grand court of equity and conscience, instituted to moderate the rigor of the other courts that are bound to the strict letter of the law. CHAN'CES, a branch of mathematics, which estimates ratios of probability. CHANT, in music, an ecclesiastical song usually adapted to the psalms and litanies. There have been several sorts, of which the first was the Ambrosian, invented by St. Ambrose, bishop of Milan. The Gregorian chant, which was introduced by Pope Gregory, is still in use in the Roman church, and is the foundation of all that is grand and elevated in music. CHAN'TRY, a little chapel or altar, commonly in some church endowed (before the Reformation) with revenues for the maintenance of a priest to perform prayers for the soul of the founder and others. CHA'OS, that confusion in which matter is supposed to have existed before the world was produced by the creative power of Omnipotence; or, in other words, the unformed primeval matter of which everything was made. The ancient poets, and Ovid in particular, represent chaos thus: that there was neither sun to make the day, nor moon to enlighten the night; that the earth was not yet hung in the circumambient air, nor the sea bounded by any shore; but that earth, air, and water, were one undigested mass. CHAPEL, a place of divine worship, served by an incumbent under the denomination of a chaplain. There are various kinds of chapels; as parochial chapels, distinct from the mother church; chapels of ease, built in large parishes for the accommodation of the inhabitants; free chapels, which were founded by different kings; chapels belonging to particular colleges; domestic chapels, built by noblemen or gentlemen for the use of their families. CHAP'ELRY, the precinct belonging to a chapel, in distinction from a parish, or that belonging to a church. CHAP'LAIN, an ecclesiastic who performs divine service in a chapel; but it more commonly means one who attends upon a king, prince, or other person of quality, for the performance of his clerical duties in the private chapel. CHAP'LET, in a general sense, a garland or wreath to be worn on the head.In architecture, a little moulding, carved into round beads, pearls, &c.-Chaplet, a string of beads used by the Roman Catholics, by which they count the number of their prayers, and are called paternosters. This practice is believed to have been introduced by Peter the Hermit into the church on his return from the Holy Land, the Orientals using a kind of chaplet called a chain, and rehearsing one of the perfections of God on each link or bead. CHAPTER, in ecclesiastical polity, is an assembly for the transaction of such business as comes under its cognizance. Every cathedral is under the superintendence of the dean and chapter of its canons. A meeting of the members of an order of knighthood is also called a chapter. CHAPTER-HOUSE, in architecture, the apartment (usually attached) of a cathedral or collegiate church, in which the heads of the church or the chapter meet to transact business. CHARACTER, that which distinguishes each species of being in each genus, and each individual of each species. In man, character consists of the form of the body, stature, and gait, which distinguish him from other animals. In mankind, the natural or accidental peculiarities resulting from sex, temperament, age, climate, the exercise of the passions, the position of the individual in the social scale, and his mode of living. These peculiarities and differences are, after the study of the human figure in general, the most important subjects of the study of the painter and sculptor, since upon these peculiarities and differences depend all the significance of their compositions. Each genus, each family of animals, has also its general and particular character. So also in the inanimate productions of nature, trees, rocks, fields, and meadows, which vary in reality as well as in appearance, according to the climate, season, time of day, accidental condition of the sky, and also according to the modifications they receive at the hands of man, the effect of time, or by the effect of natural accidents. If all these things, observed with sagacity and selected with taste, are faithfully represented in a picture, we say that the animals, the trees, the rocks of the picture have good character. CHARACTERISTIC, in a general sense, a peculiar mark or character, whereby a person or thing is distinguished from all others. horses which drew them. When the warriors came to encounter in close fight, they alighted and fought on foot; but when they were weary they retired into their chariot, and thence annoyed their enemies with darts and missive weapons Besides this sort, we find frequent mention of the currus falcati, or chariots armed with hooks or scythes, with which whole ranks of soldiers were cut off together: these were not only used by the Persians, Syrians, Egyptians, &c., but we find them among our British ancestors.-The Roman triumphal chariot was generally made of ivory, round like a tower, or rather of a cylindrical figure; sometimes gilt at the top and ornamented with crowns; and, to represent a victory more naturally, they used to stain it with blood. It was usually drawn by four white horses, but oftentimes by lions, elephants, tigers, bears, leopards, &c. CHARIS'IA, a Roman nocturnal festival and dance kept in honor of the Graces, when sweetmeats, called charisia, were distributed among the guests. CHARIS'TIA, a solemn festival among the Romans kept in the month of FebruCHARADE', a syllabic enigma, so ary. It was well worthy the imitation named from its inventor, made upon a of Christians; for at this time the relaword the two syllables of which, when tions of each family compromised any separately taken, are themselves words. differences that had arisen between them, It consists of three parts; the two first and renewed their former friendships describing the syllables separately; the upon the principles of pure benevolence second alluding to the entire word. A and good-will. charade can only be called complete if CHARITY, in a general sense, that the different enigmas which it contains disposition of heart which inclines men to are brought into a proper relation to each think favorably of their fellow-men, and other, and as a whole unite in an epi- to do them good; or liberality and begrammatic point. The following charade, nevolence, either in alms-giving or in which we borrow from the Dictionnaire | contributing towards public charitable inde l'Academie Française, may be regard-stitutions. In a theological sense, sued as a good specimen of this species of preme love to God, and universal goodriddle :-"My first makes use of my will to men. second to eat my whole;" the solution being chien-dent, (dog-tooth,) or dog's grass. The word charade has been applied to this sort of amusement, from the name of its inventor. CHARGE, in a general sense, is that which is enjoyed, committed, intrusted or delivered to another, implying care, custody, oversight, or duty to be performed by the party intrusted. Charge, in civil law, the instructions given by the judge to the grand jury. In ecclesiastical law, the instructions given by a bishop to the clergy of his diocese. CHAR'IOT, in antiquity, a car or vehicle used formerly in war, and called by the several names of biga, triga, quadriga, &c., according to the number of CHAR'LATAN, one who makes unwarrantable pretensions to skill, and prates much in his own favor. The original import of the word was an empiric, or quack, who retailed his medicines on a public stage, and drew the people about him by his buffooneries. CHARM, some magical words, characters, verses, &c., imagined to possess some occult and unintelligible power: by which, with the supposed assistance of the devil, witches and sorcerers have pretended to do wonderful things. The word, in its more modern acceptation, is used to describe that which delights and attracts the heart. CHA'RON, in mythology, the ferryman of hell, who conducted the souls of the departed in a boat across the Stygian lake to receive judgment from Eacus, Rhadamanthus, and Minos, the judges of the infernal regions. He received an obolus from every passenger, for which reason the ancients used to put that piece of money in the mouths of the dead. He was said to be the son of Erebus and Night. CHARʼTA, MAG'NA, in English history. The "Great Charter of the Realm" was signed by King John in 1215, and confirmed by his successor Henry III. It is reported to have been chiefly drawn up by the Earl of Pembroke and Stephen Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury. Its most important articles are those which provide that no freeman shall be taken or imprisoned or proceeded against, "except by the lawful judgment of his peers or by the law of the land," and that no scutage or aid should be imposed in the kingdom (except certain feudal dues from tenants of the crown) unless by the common council of the kingdom. The remaining and greater part of it is directed against abuses of the king's power as feudal superior. CHARTE, in French history, originally used to indicate the rights and privileges granted by the French kings to various towns and communities; but recently to the fundamental law of the French monarchy, as established on the restoration of Louis XVIII. in 1814. The Charte consisted of 69 articles, and was founded on principles analogous to those of the British constitution, as embodied originally in the Magna Charta, and subsequently extended in the Bill of Rights. CHARTER, in law, a written instrument, executed with usual forms, whereby the king grants privileges to towns, corporations, &c.; whence the name of Magna Charta, or the Great Charter of Liberties granted to the people of the whole realm. CHA'RTER-PARTY, in mercantile law, is defined to be a contract, by which the owner or master of a ship hires or lets the whole or a principal part of it to a freighter for the conveyance of goods, under certain specified conditions, on a determined voyage to one or more places. A charter-party is generally under seal; but a printed or written instrument signed by the parties, called a memorandum of a charter-party, is binding if no charter-party be executed. A voyage may be performed in part under a charterparty, and in part under a parol agreement; but the terms of a charter-party cannot be altered by parol evidence, although they may be explained by mercantile usage. The instrument expresses the freight to be paid, and generally, but not necessarily, the burden of the ship; together with some usual covenants, and others at the discretion of the parties. CHAR/TULARY, in diplomatics, a collection of the charters belonging to a church or religious house. CHARYB'DIS, a much-dreaded vortex at the entrance of the Sicilian straits, celebrated for its engulfing perils, by the ancient writers. It is, however, no longer dreadful to navigators, who, in a quiet sea, and particularly with a south wind, cross it without danger. CHASE, in law, a part of a forest for game, which may be possessed by a subject: though a forest cannot. The word chase has also several meanings in maritime language; as, itime language; as, chase-guns, that lie at the head, to fire on a vessel that is pursued, in distinction to stern-chasers, which fire on the pursuer.-With huntsmen, the chase is a figurative expression for their sport in general. CHA'SING, in sculpture, the art of embossing on metals, or representing figures thereon by a kind of basso-relievo, punched out from behind, and carved on the front with small gravers. The metals usually chased are gold, silver, and bronze, and among the ancients, iron also. The remains of ancient art show to what a degree of perfection it was carried; and in our own times, some very fine works have been executed. CHASSEURS', a French term for a select body of light infantry, formed on the left of a battalion, and who are required to be particularly light, active, and courageous.-Chasseurs à cheval, a kind of light horse in the French service. CHA'SUBLE, CHESABLE, CHESIBLE, called also a vestment, the upper or last vestment put on by the priest before celebrating the mass. In form it is nearly circular, being slightly pointed before and behind, having an aperture in the middle for the head to pass through, and its ample folds resting on either side upon the arms. It is richly decorated with embroidery and even with jewels. CHATEAU, a French word, formerly used for a castle, or baronial seat in France; but now simply for a country seat. CHEF-D'ŒUVRE, a work of the highest excellence in itself, or relatively to the other works of the same artist. Thus the Apollo Belvedere, or the Trans figuration of Raffaelle, are chef-d'œuvres of sculpture and painting. CHENIS'CUS, in works of ancient art, ships are seen with ornamental prows, shaped to represent the head and neck of a goose, or other aquatic bird; this part was called cheniscus, and was constructed of bronze and other materials.Sometimes, but rarely, the cheniscus is affixed to the stern of a ship. CHER'UBIM, in Christian Art, a higher class of angels, the nearest to the throne of God, of which they are the supporters. Their forms are known by the poetical writings of the Old Testament. They appear first as guardians of Paradise, whence our first parents were expelled by a cherub with a flaming sword. Jehovah rested between the wings of the cherubim on the cover of the ark; and in the history of Ezekiel they are represented with four wings, two of which covered the body and drew the chariot of the Lord through the air. In the heavenly hierarchy the cherubim form one of the three high angel choirs-seraphim, cherubim, and angels, which constitute the first and upper order of angels; they rank next to the seraphim. CHER'SONESE, a tract of land, of any indefinite extent, which is nearly surrounded by water, but united to a larger tract by a neck of land or isthmus. CHEVAL-DE-FRISE, (generally used in the plural, CHEVAUX-DE-FRISE, Fr. pron. shevo de freez,) spikes of wood, pointed with iron, five or six feet long, fixed in a strong beam of wood, and used as a fence against cavalry, or to stop a breach, &c. CHIARO OSCURO, (an Italian phrase, meaning clear-obscure,) is the art of distributing lights and shadows in painting. The aim of paintings is to form a picture by means of light and shade, and by colors and their gradations; the more truly painting accomplishes this end, the more artistic it will be. Correggio and Rembrandt are famous for their chiaro-oscuro. According to the common acceptation of the term in the language of art, chiaro oscuro means not only the mutable effects produced by light and shade, but also the permanent differences in brightness and darkness. CHICA'NERY, mean or unfair artifices to perplex a cause or to obscure the truth; applied either in a legal sense, by which justice is somehow intended to be perverted; or to disputatious sophistry. CHIEF, a term signifying the head, or principal part of a thing or person. Thus we say, the chief of a party, the chief of a family, &c. CHIEFTAIN, a captain or commander of any class, family, or body of men : thus, the Highland chieftains, or chiefs, were the principal noblemen or gentlemen of their respective clans. CHIL'IAD, the sum or number of one thousand. Hence chiliarch denotes the military commander or chief of a thousand men: chiliarchy, a body consisting of 1000 men: chiliahedron, a figure of 1000 equal sides: and chiliagon, a figure of 1000 angles and sides. CHILL'ED. When a cloudiness or dimness appears on the surface of a picture that has been varnished, it is called blooming, and we say the varnish has chilled. This defect arises from the presence of moisture, either on the surface of the picture, or in the brush, or in the varnish itself, and can easily be avoided by making the former thoroughly dry, and the latter hot before it is applied. CHIMÆ'RA, a misshapen monster in Grecian mythology, described by Homer as having a lion's head, a goat's body, and the tail of a dragon. The chimæra appears in Art as a lion, except that out of the back grow the head and neck of a goat, and gigantic carvings of it are found on rocks in Asia Minor, according to Homer the native country of the monster. There are innumerable small antique statues of chimæra, and Bellerophon, by whom the chimera was killed, of which one of the most remarkable is in the Uffigi palace at Florence. Christian Art, the chimæra is a symbol of cunning. It is frequently seen on the modillions and capitals of architectural works executed in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, and again in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. In CHIMES, the musical sounds of bells struck with hammers, arranged and set in motion by clock-work.-In a clock, a kind of periodical music, produced at certain hours by a particular apparatus. CHIM'NEY, in architecture, a body of brick or stone erected in a building, containing a funnel to convey smoke and other volatile matter through the roof from the grate or hearth. How far the Greek and Roman architects were acquainted with the construction of chimneys is a matter of dispute. No traces of them have been discovered in the ruins of Pompeii, and Vitruvius gives no rules for erecting them. The first certain notice of chimneys, as we now build them, is believed to be that contained in an in scription of Venice, over the gate of an edifice, which states that in 1347 a great many chimneys were thrown down by an earthquake. CHI'NA-WARE, the most beautiful of all kinds of earthenware, takes its name from China, whence the Dutch and English merchants first brought it into Europe. It is also called porcelain, from the Portuguese porcellana, a cup or vessel. The Japan china is considered superior to all other of oriental manufacture, in its close and compact granular texture, its sonorosity when struck, its extreme hardness, its smooth and shining appearance, and its capability of being used to boil liquids in. With the Chinese potters, the preparation of the clay is constantly in operation; and usually remains in the pits from ten to twenty years prior to being used; for, the longer it remains there, the greater is its value. The Dresden china has some qualities which render it decidedly superior to the oriental. Its texture exhibits a compact, shining, uniform mass, resembling white enamel, while it possessės firmness, solidity, and infusibility by heat. CHINESE WHITE, an empirical name given to the white oxide of zinc, a valuable pigment recently introduced into the Arts as a substitute for the preparations of white lead. It is little liable to change, either by atmospheric action or by mixture with other pigments. Its only defect appears to be a want of body, as compared with white lead. CHIROGRAPH, among the AngloSaxons, signified any public instrument of gift or conveyance, attested by the subscription and crosses of witnesses. Any deed requiring a counterpart was engrossed twice on the same piece of parchment, with a space between, on which was written chirograph, through which the parchment was cut, and one part given to each party. It was also anciently used for a fine: the manner of engrossing the fines, and cutting the parchment in two pieces, is still retained in the chirographer's office, in the Court of Common Pleas. CHIROL'OGY, the art or practice of communicating thoughts by signs made by the hands and fingers; as a substitute for language. CHIROMANCY, a species of divination, drawn from the different lines and lineaments of a person's hand; by which means, it is pretended the inclinations may be discovered. The modern word is palmistry. CHIRON'OMY, in antiquity, the art of representing any past transaction by the gestures of the body, more especially by the motions of the hands: this made a part of liberal education: it had the approbation of Socrates, and was ranked by Plato among the political virtues. CHIS'LEU, the ninth month of the Jewish year, answering to the latter part of November and the beginning of December. CHITON, the under-garment of the Greeks, corresponding to the tunic of the Romans, mentioned as early as Homer; it was made of woollen cloth. After the Greek migration it was called chitoniscos, while the light loose garment or himation was also called chlania, or chlanis. The Doric chiton, worn by men, was short and of wool; that of the Athenians and Ionians, of linen, in earler times worn long, but with the former people, after the time of Pericles, it was shorter. |