as that from the top of mount Washington, yet, owing to the situation of the Great Haystack, nearer the centre of this mountainous region, it is not inferior to it, either in beauty or grandeur. A person who has never ascended this or any of the neighboring summits, will not easily imagine what a world of mountains is here presented to view, or how well entitled this part of New Hampshire is to be styled, as it has sometimes been, the Switzerland of America. The view to the north-east, east, south and south-east, is one grand panorama of mountain scenery, presenting more than fifty summits, which, when viewed from this elevation, do not appear to differ greatly in height. Some of these mountains are covered with verdure to the top, while the summits of others are composed of naked rocks; and down the sides of many of them may be seen slides, or avalanches, of earth, rocks and trees, more or less extensive, which serve to diversify the scene. The whole appearance of cultivation in this entire compass, is confined to a few farms, seen in a direction west of south, on the road to Plymouth, extending along the Pemigewasset branch of the river Merrimack. To the west is seen the territory which is watered by the Connecticut and the Lower Amonoosuck. This country, though hilly, yet, when viewed from this elevation, appears almost level, and with its few small villages, scattered houses, and cultivated farms, presents a pleasing contrast to the wild and dreary prospect in all other directions. At the place in the road through the notch where the path up the mountain commences, is exhibited to the view of the traveller, on the summit of the mountain opposite to the Great Haystack, a remarkable curiosity, called the profile, or old man of the mountain, which is a singular lusus naturæ. It is situated on the brow of the peak, which rises almost perpendicularly from the surface of a small lake, directly in front, to the height of about 800 feet. The front of this precipice is formed of solid rock; but as viewed from the point where the profile is seen, the whole of it appears to be covered with trees and vegetation, except about space enough for a side view of the old man's bust. All the principal features of the human face, as seen in a profile, are exhibited with surprising exactness. The little lake at the bottom of the precipice, is one of the sources of the Pemigewasset river; and about half a mile to the north of this, there is another somewhat larger lake, which is about a mile in length, and surrounded by picturesque

scenery. These lakes are both situated in Franconia notch, and very near the road. The northern one is 900 feet above the site of the iron works in Franconia, and the highest point of the road is 1029 feet above the same level.

HAYTI, OF HAITI (the mountainous); the Indian name of one of the Antilles, to which Columbus gave the name of Española (Hispaniola, Little Spain), but which was commonly called St. Domingo by the French and English, from its capital. It lies south-east of Cuba (from which it is separated by the Windward passage, 18 leagues in width), and east of Jamaica, and between latitude 17° 43′ and 19° 58′ N, and longitude 68° 25′ and 74° 35′ W. Its greatest length, from east to west, is about 390 miles, its breadth from 60 to 150 miles, its superficial area 30,000 square miles. On the west, it forms two remarkable promontories, between which is the gulf of Gonaives. The northern point is cape Isabella, the eastern, cape Engagno. Old cape François forms the north-east extremity of the island. On the northern coast lies the island of Tortugas, separated from the main land by the narrow channel of the same name. The face of the country is, in general, mountainous, and intersected with deep valleys. The Cibao mountains run across the island from east to west. The highest summits are about 6000 feet above the level of the sea. Monte-Christi, in the north-east, is the other principal chain. In the south-east part, particularly, there are extensive plains of savannas, occupied by large herds of swine, horses and horned cattle. That of Los Llanos, which lies east of the city of St. Domingo, is 80 miles long, by 25 to 30 broad. The Vega Reale is of nearly the same extent, and more fertile. Hayti is well watered by numerous rivers; the soil is fertile, producing every variety of vegetable for beauty and use. The climate, on account of the inequalities of the surface and diversity of situation, is various. In the plains, the great heat, joined to the natural humidity, is often fatal to Europeans, but produces a rich vegetation. On the coasts, the regular sea and land breezes are refreshing. On the mountains, the cold is often uncomfortable. As in all tropical climates, the year is divided into the dry and the rainy seasons. In May and June, the rain falls in torrents, but hurricanes are less frequent than in the other Antilles. Sugar-cane, coffee, cotton, cocoa, are produced in great abundance. Indigo was formerly much

cultivated, but is now little attended to. The plantain, vanilla, potato, manioc, &c., are spontaneous productions of this rich soil. The mountains are covered with valuable timber, oak, mahogany, satinwood, ironwood, &c. Before the arrival of the Europeans, there were but four species of quadrupeds in the island. Of these the agouti only survives. The principal towns are Cape Haytien (q. v.), the capital, the Mole, Port-Républicain (Portau-Prince) and St. Domingo. The island is divided into five departments, which are subdivided into 33 arrondissements. The population, in 1824, was 953,335, almost all blacks and mulattoes, the greater part of which is in the French division of the island. In 1789, the population was 665,000. The regular troops, in 1824, were 40,000; the militia, 113,000. The language of the government, and of the greatest part of the population, is French. The Spanish is also spoken in the eastern portion of the island. Much has been done for public instruction. There is hardly a considerable village without a school, and a college has been established at Cape Haytien, where a liberal course of instruction is pursued. The manners of the lower classes are much improved since they have gained their freedom, and they have an air of comfort, health and happiness. The Catholic is the religion of the state, but all sects are tolerated. The commerce of Hayti has been affected, of course, by the vicissitudes of its government. In 1789, the island was in a most flourishing condition, but its commerce and industry were interrupted by the bloody wars and revolutions which succeeded, and have only of late begun to revive. The exports were, in

Coffee, Sugar,

1822,

47,600,000 1821,

35,117,831 lbs. 37,700,000 lbs. 652,541 725,000 Estimated value, in 1822, 9,030,397 dollars; in 1825, about 8,000,000. The revenue, in 1825, was about 4,400,000 dollars, which fell short of the expenditures. The government of Hayti is republican. The chief magistrate is the president, who is elected for life by the senate. He exercises the executive power, commands the forces of the republic, and nominates all officers. The legislative power is vested in a senate and house of representatives. The latter are chosen for five years, and consist of one representative from each

commune and two from each capital city. The senate is composed of 24 members, chosen for nine years by the representatives, from a list presented by the president. A code, based on the French, has been adopted, and trial by jury introduced. (See Present State of Hayti, by J. Franklin, 1828; Notes on Hayti, by Charles Mackenzie, late English Consul-General to that Island, London, 1830.) The island of Hispaniola is memorable for having been the seat of the first European settlement in America, and the scene of the first independent empire founded by African slaves. It was discovered by Columbus, on the 6th of December, 1492, on his return from Cuba. It had borne the name of Hayti among the natives. Columbus called it Española, or Little Spain, and it has since acquired the name of St. Domingo, from the chief town. The impres sion made on Columbus, by the beauty of the country, determined him to form a settlement here; and he accordingly left 38 Spaniards at the bay of St. Nicholas. These were the first colonists of America. On his return, in November, 1493, he founded a second town on the northern coast, which he called Isabella, the first settlement having been nearly destroyed by the natives. The licentiousness and avarice of the new settlers again provoked the Indians to attempt revenge; but these miserable beings were overpowered by European skill, and great numbers perished by famine and the sword. In 1496, Columbus returned to Spain, leaving his brother Bartholomew lieutenant-governor, who soon afterwards removed the colony to the south side of the island, where he founded the city of St. Domingo. The colonists were distributed in different districts, and a certain number of natives were appointed to cultivate each allotment. This unhappy race dwindled away fast, under disease and a species of labor to which they were unaccustomed. (See Irving's Columbus.) Their numbers were so much reduced about the year 1513, that Ovando, to supply laborers, decoyed 40,000 of the inhabitants of the Bahamas into St. Domingo; and, notwithstanding this accession, it is said, that towards the middle of that century, scarcely 150 Indians remained alive. The colonists, in the mean time, degenerated from the spirit and enterprise of their ancestors. Their mines were deserted, and their agriculture neglected; and, although Ovando had introduced the sugar-cane from the Canary islands, yet, such was the indolence of the inhabitants, that they

could not be persuaded to cultivate it. In this state of things, the island remained for upwards of a century. About the middle of the 17th century, the French and English buccaneers (q. v.) began to attract notice. The French obtained a footing on the west end of the island about the same time that the English got possession of Jamaica. The former applied themselves to agriculture, and, in a few years, attracted the attention of the French government. Several slaves having been taken from the English, in the war of 1688, the inhabitants renewed the culture of the sugar-cane. From the year 1722, when the French colony was freed from the yoke of exclusive trading companies, it rapidly rose in prosperity, while the Spanish settlements had declined in population. It was not until 1765, when Charles II opened a free trade to all the Windward islands, that Hispaniola began to exhibit symptoms of prosperity. In 1691, Spain had ceded to France, by the treaty of Ryswick, the western half of the island. In 1776, a new line of demarcation was drawn, and a liberal commerce was opened between the two sections. From 1776 to 1789, the French colony was at the height of its prosperity. Its productions were immense and valuable, and its commerce in the most flourishing state. In 1791, an insurrection of the negroes broke out in the French colony. In two months, upwards of 2000 whites perished, and large districts of fertile plantations were devastated. In 1792, the national assembly proclaimed the political equality of the free negroes and the whites, and, in the succeeding year, appointed three commissioners, who, on their arrival, proclaimed the emancipation of the slaves. June 21, 1793, Macaya, a negro chief, entered Cape François, at the head of 3000 slaves, and began an indiscriminate slaughter. The British government, hoping to take advantage of the confusion, sent a body of troops from Jamaica, who captured Leogane and Portau-Prince. The yellow fever, however, breaking out, reduced their numbers rapidly; and the blacks, headed by Rigaud, a mulatto, and the celebrated Toussaint Louverture, who had been appointed, by the French government, commander-inchief, retook the principal places. The English, after an enormous loss of men, finally evacuated the island, in 1798. Previously to this, Spain had ceded to France the eastern part of the island, July 1, 1801, the independence of Hayti was proclaimed. Under the administra

tion of Bonaparte, then first consul, a force of 20,000 men, under general Le Clerc, was despatched in December, 1801. During a truce, Toussaint was surprised and carried to France, and there died in April, 1803. Hostilities were now resumed with greater animosity on each side. The command of the black troops devolved upon Dessalines, one of the chiefs, who prosecuted the war with vigor and success. The yellow fever aided the cause of the negroes, and swept off great numbers of the French, General Le Clerc died shortly afterwards. Under his successor, Rochambeau, the French, now reduced to a handful, were driven into the Cape, where, November 30, 1803, they were forced to capitulate to an English squadron; and thus the greater part of the island was abandoned, and opposition ceased to the independence of the negroes. January 1, 1804, the general and chiefs of the army entered into a solemn compact, in the name of the people of Hayti, renouncing all dependence on France. At the same time, they appointed Dessalines governor for life, with very extensive powers. On his return, in September, from an unsuccessful expedition against the city of St. Domingo, which was still occupied by some Spaniards and French, he assumed the purple, and the title of Jacques I, emperor of Hayti. His reign was short, and, though some sagacious measures were adopted for the government and improvement of the people, yet his tyranny rendered him universally detested. He was slain by a military conspiracy in October, 1806. Christophe, his second in command, immediately assumed the administration of affairs, under the title of chief of the government. Petion, however, another chief, appeared as a candidate for the sovereign power, and the struggle between him and Christophe was long and fierce. A severe battle was fought January 1, 1807, in which Petion was defeated. Christophe's progress to supreme power was similar to that of Dessalines. In 1807, he was appointed chief magistrate for life, with the power of naming his successor, and, in 1811, he changed the title to that of king, calling himself Henry I. The office was made hereditary in his family. From 1810 to 1820, the part of Hayti formerly belonging to the French, was under distinct and rival governments. In the north was the kingdom of Christophe, and in the south a republic existed, at the head of which was Petion, who possessed both sagacity and yirtue. In 1816, he was appointed

president for life, and retained the office until May, 1818, when he died, universally lamented by his fellow citizens. Christophe (q. v.) was an avaricious and cruel despot, and perished in a military revolution, in October, 1820. In consequence of this event, the whole colony has been united under Boyer, the successor of Petion in the office of president, who is said to possess many of the virtues of his predecessor. That part of the island which was originally settled by the Spaniards remained in their hands until December, 1821, when it followed the example of the inhabitants of the north-western part, and voluntarily placed itself under the government of president Boyer, who thus peaceably became master of the whole island. In 1825, Boyer negotiated an absurd arrangement with France, by which Charles X, by royal ordinance, dated April 17, 1825, acknowledged the independence of the inhabitants of the French part of the island, in consideration of which Boyer stipulated to pay to France 150,000,000 of francs, as an indemnity for the ex-colonists, in five annual instalments. (See Boyer.)

HAZEL (Corylus); a genus of plants of the family amentacea,containing five species, all confined to the northern hemisphere, and two of them indigenous in the U. States. They are shrubs or small trees, with simple, alternate leaves. The male flowers are in long, cylindrical aments or catkins; and the fruit, consisting of a nut, marked, at base, with a large cicatrix, is enveloped in the persistent calyx, which is irregularly toothed on the margin. The European hazel (C. avellana), from cultivation, has produced several varieties, differing in the size, shape and flavor of the nuts, which are commonly known under the name of filberts, and are imported to some extent, It grows in all situations, and is easily cultivated, but a light and tolerably dry soil is the most suitable. This plant has also gained celebrity from its twigs being believed, by the common people, capable of pointing to hidden treasures, when in the hands of certain persons. (See Divining Rod, and Rhabdomancy.) The twigs of the witch hazel (hamamelis) have been employed by impostors, in this country, to delude the public in a similar manner. The American hazel (C. Americana) very much resembles the European, but is humbler in stature, and the calyx is larger than the included nut. The flavor of the kernel is, by many, preferred to the filbert, though we know of no attempts to improve it by cultivation. It is common in

most parts of the U. States. The C. rostrata, distinguished by having the calyx prolonged beyond the fruit, in the form of a long beak, and very hairy, is much rarer than the preceding, but occurs sparingly as far south as Boston. Both the hazel and filbert are much esteemed, but particularly the latter, the flavor of its kernels being very delicious. They are, however, difficult of digestion, and, when eaten in large quantities, sometimes produce very unpleasant effects. The oil which is obtained from hazel-nuts, by pressure, is little inferior in flavor to that of almonds; and, under the name of nutoil, is often preferred, by painters, on account of its drying more readily than any other of the same quality. Chemists employ it as the basis of fragrant oils artificially prepared, because it easily combines with, and retains odors. This oil is found serviceable in obstinate coughs. If nuts be put into earthen pots and well closed, and afterwards buried 18 inches or two feet deep in the earth, they may be kept sound through the winter. In many parts of England, hazels are planted in coppices and hedge-rows for several useful purposes, but particularly to be cut down, periodically, for charcoal, poles, fishingrods, &c. Being extremely tough and flexible, the branches are used for making hurdles, crates, and springles to fasten down thatch. They are formed into spars, handles for implements of husbandry, and, when split, are bent into hoops for casks. Charcoal made from hazel is much in request for forges; and, when prepared in a particular manner, is used, by painters and engravers, to draw their outlines. The roots are used by cabinetmakers for veneering; and, in Italy, the chips of hazel are sometimes put into turbid wine for the purpose of fining it.

HAZLITT, William, the son of a dissenting minister, was originally an artist. A few pictures, executed by him in his youth, are said to display genius. His writings show thought, disfigured by paradox and dogmatism. He died September 15, 1830, the day on which his last work, Conversations of James Northcote, appeared. He had, for years, contributed to the periodical journals, and had published an Essay on the Principles of Human Action; the Round Table, a series of Essays, written in conjunction with Leigh Hunt; the Eloquence of the British Senate from the Time of Charles I, with Notes (2 vols. 8vo., reprinted New York, 1810); Characters of Shakspeare's Plays; a View of the English

Stage, containing a Series of Dramatic Criticism; Lectures on the English Poets (reprinted Philadelphia, 1818); Political Essays, with Sketches of Public Characters; Lectures on the English Comic Writers; Table Talk; a Letter to W. Gifford; an English Grammar, &c. Two or three years before his death, he published a life of Napoleon Bonaparte (4 vols., 8vo., 1828 et seq.). He was also one of the writers in the Supplement to the Encyclopædia Britannica. The editor of the London Literary Gazette, in noticing his death, says, "Though differing widely from him in most of his opinions, we must allow that he produced much which did credit to his abilities. It was his asperities which rendered his performances generally unpalatable to us, and the dislike was not removed by an officious and affected style. Yet there were bright parts, and of these alone we would now cherish the remembrance, as of a clever but unamiable man, who was, as he himself tells us, at feud with the world,' and who, consequently, treated the world with ill will, if not malice, which the world requited with something of resentment and scorn."

HEAD; the part of the animal body which contains the brain and the higher organs of sense. In many animals, it is connected with the trunk, by the neck, and is more or less movable; in some animals, however, it is immovable, and is merely a prolongation of the trunk. The head in animals is more distinct in proportion as the brain is more fully developed as the centre of the nervous system. It is entirely wanting in the lowest classes of animals, which, therefore, from the intestinal worms downward, form a third class, in the system of Latreille, under the name of acephala (headless animals), while those provided with heads are divided into two classes, the vertebral animals, having distinct and proper heads, and the cephalidia, having small and less distinctly formed heads. In this part the mouth (q. v.), as the opening of the œsophagus, is always situated. In the second class of animals, in which the head is less distinct, that part of the body which is provided with the mouth, may be called the head end. In the vertebral animals (mammalia, birds, reptiles and fish), the head has a bony basis (cartilaginous only in the cartilaginous fishes). In fishes, the bones of the head are not united with each other; and the formation of the separate bones is various. In cartilaginous fishes, the head is more or less oblong and angu18

VOL. VI.

lar; in osscous fishes, it is less flattened, and composed of a considerable number of bones connected in various ways; in all fishes, the cavity of the brain is very small and oblong. Equally various is the formation of the head in the different classes of reptiles. In general, the head is composed of few bones, and more rounded in proportion as the brain is more developed. In birds, the bones of the head are more closely formed into one whole, constituting a skull more or less round, which contains the brain, and to the fore part of which the beak is attached. But the head is most perfect in the mammalia, and resembles the human head more nearly as the animal approaches more nearly to man. In general, the human head may be considered as the standard, which may be traced, with gradual deviations, through the different classes, until it entirely ceases in the lower orders of animals. Nowhere is its proper office, to serve for the reception of the nervous system, so distinct as in the human head; the cavity of the skull containing the principal organ of sensitive life-the brain; as the great cavities of the trunk containthe chest, the organs of irritable life (the heart and lungs), and the abdominal cavity, the organs of the reproductive life (the organs of digestion and generation). The superiority of the head over the other two parts just mentioned, appears also from the circumstances, that whilst it is preeminently the seat of the nervous system, it also contains organs essential for functions of the irritable and reproductive system; as the inspiration and expiration of the air are effected through the nostrils and mouth, and the entrance of food into the abdominal cavity, as well as the preparation of it for digestion, by mastication and the production of saliva, is effected by the mouth; and these organs appear more prominent, in the heads of animals, as their sensitive system sinks lower in the scale. It must not be forgotten, that the head also contains the tongue, an organ not only important in respect to nourishment, but also communicating the desires and thoughts, until it becomes in man the organ of oral intercourse, of language, and of the finest music-singing. The human head, and, more or less, the head of other animals, is divided into two chief parts, the skull (see Skull) and the face (q. v.). The importance of the head as the noblest part of the animal system, has occasioned it to be used metaphorically, in all languages, to denote that which is chief. (See Ear, Eye.) HEARING. (See Ear.)