The same experiments show that red hair differs from black only in containing a red oil instead of a blackish-green oil; and that white hair differs from both these only in the oil being nearly colorless, and in containing phosphate of magnesia, which is not found in them. The human hair varies according to age, sex, country and other circumstances. The foetus has, in the fifth month, a fine hairy covering, which is shed soon after birth, and appears again at the age of puberty. With the seventh month, the first traces of hair on the head are visible in the embryo. At birth, an infant generally has light hair. It always grows darker and stiffer with age. The same is the case with the eyelashes and eyebrows. At the age of puberty, the hair grows in the armpits, &c., of both sexes, and on the chin of the male. At a later period, it begins gradually to lose its moisture and pliability, and finally turns gray, or falls out. These effects are produced by the scanty supply of the moisture above mentioned, and a mortification of the root. But age is not the only cause of this change; dissipation, grief, anxiety, sometimes turn the hair gray in a very short time. It begins to fall out on the top of the head. The hair of men is stronger and stiffer; that of females longer (even in a state of nature), thicker, and not so liable to be shed. Blumenbach adopts the following national differences of hair:-1. brown or chestnut, sometimes approaching yellow, sometimes black, soft, full, waving; this is the hair of most nations of central Europe; 2. black, stiff, straight and thin, the hair of the Mongolian and native American races; 3. black, soft, curly, thick and full hair; most of the inhabitants of the South Sea islands have it; 4. black, curly wool, belonging to the negro race. The hair, with the nails, hoofs, horus, &c., is one of the lower productions of animal life. Hence, in a healthy state, it is insensible, and the pain which we feel when hairs are pulled out arises from the nerves which surround the root. It grows again after being cut, and, like plants, grows the more rapidly if the nutritive matter is drawn to the skin by cutting; yet, in a diseased state, and particularly in the disease called the plica polonica, it becomes sensitive and inflamed to a certain degree, bleeds, and is clotted by a secretion of lymph, which coagulates into large lumps. Hair not only serves as a cover or ornament to the body, but exercises an important influence on absorption and perspiration; where the hair is thick, the per spiration is freer. If the root is destroyed, there is no means of reproducing the hair; but if it falls out, without the root being destroyed, as is often the case after nervous fevers, the hair grows out again of itself. If the skin of the head is very dry and scurvy, mollifying means will be of service; strengthening ointments should be applied, in case the skin is weak. This shows how little reason there is in recommending oils in all cases, while the falling out of the hair may be owing to very different causes. Though hair, in a healthy state, grows only on the external parts of the body, cases are not unfrequent in which it is formed inside of the body in diseased parts. How much the hair differs in its character from the other parts of the body (being, as we have said, of a vegetable nature), is strikingly shown from the circumstance that it continues to grow after death. As the bair is a very conspicuous object, and capable of much alteration, the arrangement of it has always been one of the most important duties of the toilet. The comb is one of those simple and yet useful inventions, which must have naturally suggested themselves in the early periods of our race. (See Comb.) For some rules respecting the dressing of the hair, and an account of some curious customs connected with it, we refer the reader to the Young Ladies' Book (London, 1830; Boston and Philadelphia, 1831). The ancient Hebrews esteemed fine hair a great beauty, as several passages of Scripture show; and baldness is even threatened as a sign of God's anger. (Isaiah iii, 17, 24). The Mosaic law gives rules respecting the hair (third book of Moses, xix, 27). The Hebrew women paid very great attention to their hair; plaited it, confined it with gold and silver pins, and adorned it with precious stones. (Isaiah iii, 22). The misfortune of Absalom shows that men also valued long fine hair highly. (2 Samuel, xiv, 26.) Strong hair, as many passages show, was considered a proof of strength, and means were used to strengthen it; it was anointed with perfumed oil. According to Josephus, the body-guard of Solomon had their hair powdered with gold dust, which glittered in the sunshine. Artificial hair is a very early invention. It was used by the Greeks and Carthaginians, and particularly by the Romans, among whom artificial tresses were sold. In the time of Ovid, the Romans imported much blond hair, which was then fashionable, from Germany; and those Roman ladies who did not wear wigs, and yet wished to con form to the fashion, powdered their hair Among the Frankish kings, it was at first with a kind of gold dust. The art of dye- a privilege of the princes of the blood ing hair has been ascribed to Medea, and to wear the hair long; and, on the dewas, of course, much practised by the thronement of a Frankish prince, his hair Romans. (For more information respect- was cut, and he was sent into a convent, ing this point, see Böttiger's Sabina, or Long hair soon became a privilege of the Morning Scenes at the Toilette of a Ro- nobility. Women, in the beginning of the man Lady (written in German, and trans- Frankish monarchy, wore the hair loose, lated into French)-a work of great inter- but soon after began to wear caps. From est.) A hair-dresser was called, in Greek, the time of Clovis, the French nobility BOOTOUXORλOROS, TOÍXßoGrouxos ; in Latin, ciniflo, wore short hair; but, as they became less cinerarius; the female hair-dresser, orna- martial, they allowed the hair to grow trix. Circular pins of silver have been longer, In the time of Francis I, king of found in Herculaneum, which served to France, long hair was worn at court; but keep together the different rows of curls the king, proud of his wound on the head, arranged all round the head; this being, himself wore short hair, in the Italian and among the Roman ladies, the most gene- Swiss fashion, which soon became general fashion; and the higher the hair could ral. In the reign of Louis XIII, the be towered up, the better; though they also fashion of wearing long hair was revived, wore the Spartan knot behind (for a well- and, as it became desirable to have the formed head, a very graceful and becoming hair curl, the wigs were also restored. dress). They likewise wore hanging curls We hasten to close this history of fashion on the side. Fashion also regulated the and folly, lest our article should become as dress of the hair of the men, in the later long as one of the peruques of the begintimes of Rome. It was cut, for the first ning of the last century, or that of the time, when a boy had attained his seventh lord chancellor of England. It was reyear, and the second time when he was served for the French revolution, which fourteen years old. On the introduction overturned so many institutions of the of Christianity, the apostles and fathers "good old time," to bring back Europe of the church preached against the pre- to natural and unpowdered hair. The vailing fashion of dressing the hair. It French, the leaders in almost all fashions, became more common for men to cut the are preeminent in hair-dressing. hair short, at least it was considered more may remark that, in the north of Amerproper; hence the clergy soon wore the ica, hair does not grow so full as in hair quite short, and afterwards even Europe, and hence much more artificial shaved their heads in part. (See Ton- hair is worn. In southern Asia, the men sure.) But even the excommunications turn their whole attention to the beard, fulminated in the middle ages against long and shave the head. But the women culhair and the extravagant ornamenting of tivate their hair with great care, and dye it, could not put a stop to the custom. It and ornament it in every possible way. must be remembered that, among the an- The African tribes generally grease their cient Greeks and Romans, cutting the hair hair. (See the travels of Caillé and others.) was a great dishonor. Hence prisoners of war, and slaves who had committed any offence, had their heads shaved or hair cut. With the Lombards, it was a punishment for theft under a certain small sum; and, according to the old law of the Saxons (Sachsenspiegel), for stealing three shillings in the day time. Hence the former expression in Germany, jurisdiction of the skin and hair, that is, jurisdiction over minor offences, the highest punishment of which was flogging and cutting the hair; and jurisdiction of the neck and hand, that is, jurisdiction over aggravated offences, with the right to punish by death. The ancient Gauls wore their hair short, but the Franks long, and combed back, or in a knot behind; the magistrates wore it on the top in a tuft, as some North American Indians still do, We HAIR'S BREADTH; a measure of length, being the 48th part of an inch. HAKE (gadus merluccius). This fish belongs to that division of the genus which has two dorsal fins. In shape, it is not very unlike a pike, and has hence been termed the sea-pike by the French and Italians. The mouth is large, and is furnished with double rows of sharp teeth. The back part of the tongue, the palate, and the throat, are also armed with sharp spines or teeth. Hakes are very abundant in particular situations on the Irish coast; but, after appearing for a number of years, they seem to take a dislike to their accustomed haunts, and seek others. This is not peculiar to the hake, as the herring and various other fish are in the habit of relinquishing their stations for a considerable time. and then reappearing. Natu ralists have not given any satisfactory explanation of this singularity in the migration of fish. It may, in some instances, be occasioned by the close pursuit of an unusual number of predatory fish, to avoid the voracity of which, they may be driven upon shores that they were formerly unaccustomed to frequent; or a deficiency of their usual food may force them to abandon a residence where they could no longer be supported. manuscript papers of Hakluyt were used by Purchas. (q. v.) HALBARD, OF HALBERT, in the art of war, a well known weapon carried by the sergeants of foot, is a sort of spear, the shaft of which is about six feet long. Its head is armed with a steel point, edged on both sides; but, besides this sharp point, which is in a line with the shaft, there is a cross piece of steel, flat, and pointed at both ends, but generally with a cutting point at the other, so that it serves equally to cut down or push with. HAKIM; a Turkish word, originally sig-edge at one extremity, and a bent sharp nifying sage, philosopher, and then, very naturally, a physician, as medicine and natural philosophy, among all nations in a low degree of civilization, are the same. Hakim bashi is the physician of the sultan, that is to say, the chief of the physicians, always a Turk; whilst the true physicians in the seraglio under him are western Europeans, Greeks and Jews. Under Achmet I, there were 21 physicians in the seraglio, besides 40 Jews. How well a Christian physician is received in the Turkish empire, in comparison with other infidels, may be seen from the travels in that country; for instance, in Madden's. HAKLUYT, Richard, one of the earliest English collectors of voyages and maritime journals, was born in 1553. He entered Christ-church college, Oxford, and became so eminent for his acquaintance with cosmography, that he was appointed public lecturer on that science. In 1582, he published a small Collection of Voyages and Discoveries, which formed the basis of a subsequent work, on a larger scale. About 1584, he went to Paris, and staid there five years. After his return home, he was chosen, by sir Walter Raleigh, a member of the corporation of counsellors, assistants and adventurers, to whom he assigned his patent for the pros ecution of discoveries in America. In consequence of this appointment, he prepared for the press his collection of The principal Navigations, Voyages and Discoveries of the English Nation, made by Sea, or over Land, within the Compass of these 1500 Years. The first volume, in folio, was published in 1589, and the third and last in 1600. Besides narratives of nearly 220 voyages, these volumes comprise patents, letters, instructions and other documents, not readily to be found elsewhere. He died in 1616, and was interred in Westminster abbey. He published several other geographical works; among them is Virginia richly valued, by the Description of Florida (London 1609, 4to.). An edition of his works was published in London, 1809-1812, 5 vols. 4to. The HALBERSTADT, a Prussian city, in the province of Saxony and government of Magdeburg, has 14,700 inhabitants, and manufactures cloth, linen and leather. It was the capital of the ci-devant principality of Halberstadt. It has 10 churches, besides the cathedral of St. Stephen. It is a place of great antiquity, and is supposed to have been built by the Cherusci. The buildings are in the Gothic style, and of antique appearance. A remarkable diet of the German empire was held here in 1134. It is a walled city. Lat. 51° 53′ 55" N.; lon. 11° 4′ E. HALDE, John Baptiste du, a learned Jesuit, was born at Paris in 1674. He was intrusted by his order with the care of collecting and arranging the letters sent by the society's missionaries from the va rious parts of the world. He was also secretary to father Le Tellier, confessor to Louis XIV. He died in 1743, much esteemed for his mildness, piety and patient industry. He is chiefly known as the editor of the Lettres édifiantes et curieuses, from the 9th to the 26th collection, to which he wrote useful prefaces; and also for his compilation entitled Description historique, géographique, et physique, de l'Empire de la Chine, et de la Tartarie Chinoise (4 vols. folio, Paris, 1735). The latter work, which, with some retrenchments, has been translated into English, is deemed the most complete general account of that vast empire which has appeared in Europe. HALDENWANG, Christian; born May 14, 1770; one of the most distinguished living engravers of Germany. He was obliged, when a boy, to labor in the vineyards and on the fields of his father, a surgeon at Durlach. After he was admitted to the drawing school of his native place, he made great exertions to improve himself. In 1796, he received an invitation to Dessau, from the chalcographic society, where he remained eight years, devoting himself to aquatinta; but, at a later period, he was recalled, by his sovereign, to Carlsruhe. Since that time, he has resigned aquatinta, and now works only with the burin and the etching-needle. In the Musée Napoléon are two landscapes of Ruisdael and Poussin, one after Claude Lorraine, and one after Elsheimer, engraved by him. HALE, in the sea language, signifies pull. HALE, Sir Matthew, an eminent English judge, was born at Alderley, in Gloucestershire, in 1609. He received his early education under a Puritanical clergyman, and afterwards became a student at Magdalen Hall, Oxford, whence he removed, in his 21st year, to Lincoln's Inn. He is said to have studied 16 hours daily, extending his researches to natural philosophy, mathematics, history and divinity, as well as the sciences more immediately connected with his profession. He was called to the bar previously to the commencement of the civil war; and, in the conflict of parties which took place, his moderation, accompanied, as it was, by personal integrity, and skill in his profession, secured him the esteem of both royalists and parliamentarians in his own time. Imitating Atticus rather than Cato, he adhered to the triumphant party, and scrupled not to take the covenant, and become a lay-member of the famous ecclesiastical assembly at Westminster; yet he acted as counsel for the accused on the trials of the earl of Strafford, archbishop Laud, and even of the king himself. In 1652, he was placed on the committee appointed to consider of the propriety of reforming the law. In 1654, he became a judge of the common bench (the former king's bench), in which station he displayed firmness of principle sufficient to give offence to the protector; and, finding he could not retain his office with honor, he refused to preside again on criminal trials. After the death of Oliver Cromwell, he refused a new commission from his son and successor. He was a member of the parliament which restored Charles II, and he was one of the members most active in passing the act of indemnity. In November, 1660, he was knighted, and made chief baron of the court of exchequer. He presided at the condemnation of some persons arraigned for witchcraft, at Bury St. Edmund's, in 1664, and was the last English judge who sanctioned the conviction of culprits for that imaginary crime. He was raised to the chief-justiceship of the king's bench in 1671, where he sat till 1676, towards the end of which year he died. After his death appeared his History of the Pleas of the Crown, The Ju risdiction of the Lords' House, and The History of the Common Law of England; of which there have been repeated editions, with comments. His valuable collection of manuscripts relating to history and jurisprudence, is preserved in the library of Lincoln's Inn. Sir Matthew Hale also wrote several works on scientific and religious subjects. HALE, Nathan, an officer in the revolutionary army, was born in Coventry, Connecticut, and was graduated at Yale college, in 1773. As the contest between the mother country and the colonies was then waging, he offered his services to the latter, and obtained a captain's commission in colonel Knowlton's regiment of light infantry, which formed the van of the American army. After the retreat of general Washington from Long Island, by which it was left in the possession of the British, that commander applied to colonel Knowlton to adopt some means of gaining information concerning the strength, situation and future movements of the enemy. The colonel communicated this request to captain Hale, who immediately volunteered his services; and, conquering his repugnance to assume a character foreign to his nature, in the hope of being useful to his country, passed in disguise to Long Island, examined every part of the British army, and obtained all the requisite information. In attempting to return, however, he was apprehended, and brought before sir William Howe, who ordered him to be executed, the next morning, on his acknowledging who he was, and what was his object, when he found the proof against him too strong to be gainsayed. This sentence (conformable, it is true, to the laws of war) was carried into effect in the most unfeeling manner. He was refused the attendance of a clergyman; and the letters which he wrote, a short time before his death, to his mother and others, were destroyed, in order, as was said by the provost marshal, "that the rebels should not know they had a man in their army who could die with so much firmness." The untimely end of this promising but unfortunate young man resembled that of major Andrè, in the circumstances which led to it; but the celebrity of the two has been widely different. The memory of the Englishman has received every honor, not only in his own country, but likewise in this; while that of the martyr to the cause of American liberty hardly survives even here. The monument of the former stands in Westminster abbey, amongst those of sages and he roes, whilst the grave of the patriot is not even marked by a stone or an inscription. HALEN, don Juan van, a Spaniard of Dutch extraction, was born in the Isle of Leon, Feb. 16, 1790. As some interest is attached to the name of this man from his having been for a time at the head of the military forces of the insurgents in the late revolution in Brussels (1830), we give the following account of him, extracted from the Narrative of Don Juan van Halen's Imprisonment in the Dungeons of the Inquisition at Madrid, and his Escape in 1817 and 1818; to which are added his Journey to Russia, his Campaign with the Army of the Caucasus, and his Return to Spain in 1821, edited from the original Spanish Manuscript, by the Author of Don Esteban and Sandoval (London, 1828.) For the entire authenticity of the account we do not vouch, as the book has in many parts the air of a fiction. His father was employed in the Spanish navy; and before the subject of the present article had at tained his 16th year, he had served in two naval expeditions, the last of which terminated in the battle of Trafalgar. Halen was made lieutenant, and wounded on board the flotilla of Malaga. May 2, 1807, he was wounded again, having taken part with the people of Madrid against the French. He then served against the French, was made prisoner when Soult captured Ferrol, and took the oath of submission to king Joseph, with whom he went to France, but was, after some time, dismissed. In 1813, when all the afrancesados (q. v.) were invited back to Spain, he returned; but, anxious to perform some service for his country, he dressed himself as a French officer, and, having fraudulently obtained a copy of the seal of marshal Suchet, presented himself successively before the fortresses of Lerida, Mequinenza and Monzon, as an aid-de-camp of the marshal, with forged orders to their commandants to evacuate their posts immediately. The artifice, strange to say, succeeded completely, and Spain recovered three important places without losing a drop of blood. The French troops were afterwards taken prisoners on their march. The Spanish regency appointed van Halen captain, for having "reconquered the strong places," &c. Van Halen served, in his new rank, in the Catalonian army, until the return of Ferdinand VII. When this perjured king violated his solemn promises to the nation, secret societies were formed, in order to induce or compel the king to keep his word. Van Halen became a tnember of one of them, but not until he had been causelessly suspected and imprisoned. In September, 1817, he was imprisoned a second time, in Murcia, in the dungeons of the inquisition, to the prisons of which society, in Madrid, he was removed in October. After having had an audience of the king, he was put to the torture (which he describes in his Narrative, mentioned above), escaped from the dungeons of the holy office through the kindness and ingenuity of the daughter of the turnkey, went to France and England, and, in 1818, entered the Russian service as major, in a regiment of dragoons, which formed part of general Yermelow's army, in Georgia, and was employed to repress the turbulent mountaineers on the northern side of the Caucasus. But the new revolution having broken out in Spain, the emperor gave orders for Halen's immediate dismission; he returned to Spain, and, on the entrance of the French army, fled to the U. States. In the late revolution of Belgium, he received a command in the independent troops; but, for reasons unknown to us, he was afterwards arrested. HALES, Alexander de; surnamed the irrefragable doctor; an English ecclesiastic, celebrated among the controversialists of the 13th century. He studied at the universities of Oxford and Paris, in which latter city he died in 1245. HALF MARK; a noble, or six shillings and eight pence. HALF MOON, in fortification; an outwork composed of two faces, forming a salient angle, whose gorge is in form of a half moon. HALF PIKE; a defensive weapon, composed of an iron spike, fixed on an ashen staff. Its use is to repel the assault of boarders in a manner similar to the defence of the charged bayonet among infantry; hence it is frequently termed a boarding pike. It takes the epithet of half from its having a much shorter staff than the whole pike. HALIBUT. (See Holibut.) HALICARNASSUS; the capital of Caria, in Asia Minor, and the residence of the Carian kings. It was once an important commercial city. The present name is Bodrun or Budron. It lies opposite the island of Stanchio. Queen Artemisia erected here the celebrated mausoleum in honor of her husband, king Mausolus. Halicarnassus was the native place of Herodotus, Dionysius the historian, and Dionysius the musician (who wrote on music in the time of Adrian); also of the poets Hecatæus and Callimachus. For a |